New Results Change Estimate of Higgs Boson Mass
New Results Change Estimate of Higgs Boson Mass
In a case of the plot thickening as the mystery unfolds, the Higgs boson has just gotten heavier, even though the subatomic particle has yet to be found. In a letter to the scientific journal Nature, published in the June 10, 2004 issue, an international collaboration of scientists working at the Tevatron accelerator of the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab), report the most precise measurements yet for the mass of the top quark — a subatomic particle that has been found — and this requires an upward revision for the long-postulated but still undetected Higgs boson.
"Since the top quark mass we are reporting is a bit higher than previously measured, it means the most likely value of the Higgs mass is also higher," says Ron Madaras, a physicist with the U.S. Department of Energy's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab), who heads the local participation in the D-Zero experiment at the Tevatron. "The most likely Higgs mass has now been increased from 96 to 117 GeV/c2" — GeV/c2 is a common particle-physics unit of mass; the mass of the proton measures about 1 GeV/c2 — "which means it's probably beyond the sensitivity of current experiments, but very likely to be found in future experiments at the Large Hadron Collider being built at CERN."
The Higgs boson has been called the missing link in the Standard Model of Particles and Fields, the theory that's been used to explain fundamental physics since the 1970s. Prior to 1995 the top quark was also missing, but then the experimental teams working at the Tevatron's two large detector systems, D-Zero and
New measurements of top quark mass at Fermilab have revised estimates for the mass of the Higgs boson.
CDF, were able to discover it independently.
Scientists believe that the Higgs boson, named for Scottish physicist Peter Higgs, who first theorized its existence in 1964, is responsible for particle mass, the amount of matter in a particle. According to the theory, a particle acquires mass through its interaction with the Higgs field, which is believed to pervade all of space and has been compared to molasses that sticks to any particle rolling through it. The Higgs field would be carried by Higgs bosons, just as the electromagnetic field is carried by photons.
"In the Standard Model, the Higgs boson mass is correlated with top quark mass," says Madaras, "so an improved measurement of the top quark mass gives more information about the possible value of the Higgs boson mass."
According to the Standard Model, at the beginning of the universe there were six different types of quarks. Top quarks exist only for an instant before decaying into a bottom quark and a W boson, which means those created at the birth of the universe are long gone. However, at Fermilab's Tevatron, the most powerful collider in the world, collisions between billions of protons and antiprotons yield an occasional top quark. Despite their brief appearances, these top quarks can be detected and characterized by the D-Zero and CDF experiments.
In announcing the D-Zero results, experiment cospokesperson John Womersley said, "An analysis technique that allows us to extract more information from each top quark event that occurred in our detector has yielded a greatly improved precision of plus or minus 5.3 GeV/c2 in the top mass measurement, compared with previous measurements. The new measurement is comparable to the precision of all previous top quark mass measurements put together. When this new result is combined with all other measurements from both the D-Zero and CDF experiments, the new world average for the top mass becomes 178.0 plus or minus 4.3 GeV/c2
The D-Zero detector system consists of a central tracking detector array, a hermetic calorimeter for measuring energy, and a large solid-angle muon detector system. Berkeley Lab designed and built the two electromagnetic end-cap calorimeters and also the initial vertex detector, the innermost component of the tracking system. Tracking detectors supplement calorimeters by measuring particle trajectories. Only when trajectory and energy measurements are combined can scientists identify and characterize particles
Top quarks and other particles are produced when energetic protons and antiprotons collide.
Top quarks and other particles are produced when energetic protons and antiprotons collide.
While raising the central value for the top quark mass appears to diminish the possibility that the Higgs boson could be discovered at the Tevatron, it does open a wider door for new discoveries in supersymmetry, also known as SUSY, an extension of the Standard Model that unites particles of force and matter through the existence of superpartners (sometimes referred to as "sparticles"). Supersymmetry seeks to fill gaps left by the Standard Model.
"The current mass limits or bounds that exclude supersymmetric particles are very sensitive to the top quark mass," says Madaras. "Since the top quark mass is now higher, these limits or bounds are not as severe, which increases the chance of seeing supersymmetric particles at the Tevatron."
Scientists from nearly 40 US universities and 40 foreign institutions contributed to the data analysis reported in the letter to Nature by the D-Zero experimental group. Berkeley Lab co-authors of the letter in addition to Madaras were Mark Strovink, Al Clark, Tom Trippe, and Daniel Whiteson.
Fermilab Director Michael Witherell said in a statement that these results do not end the story of precision measurements of the top quark mass. "The two collider detectors, D-Zero and CDF, are recording large amounts of data in Run II of the Tevatron. The CDF collaboration has recently reported preliminary new measurements of the top mass based on Run II data. The precision of the world average will improve further when their results are final. Over the next few years, both experiments will make increasingly precise measurements of the top quark mass."
Fermilab, like Berkeley Lab, is funded by the Department of Energy’s Office of Science. In response to the Nature letter from the D-Zero group, Raymond L. Orbach, Director of the Office of Science, said: “These important results demonstrate how our scientists are applying new techniques to existing data, producing new estimates for the mass of the Higgs boson. We eagerly await the next round of results from the vast quantities of data that are generated today at the Fermilab Tevatron
Berkeley Lab is a U.S. Department of Energy national laboratory located in Berkeley, California. It conducts unclassified scientific research and is managed by the University of California. Fermilab is a national laboratory funded by the Office of Science of the U.S. Department of Energy, operated by Universities Research Association, Inc.
Additional information
More about the D-Zero experiment at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab)
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CPH Theory, Creation Particle Higgs Theory
Introduction
For Newton, the force of gravity was merely a function of masses and the distance between them. For Einstein, gravity was caused by a deformation of space-time continuum. On this basis, he developed a highly complex algebra that merely describes it geometrically. Nowadays the majority of studies explain only the effects of gravity and not its nature.
The unification of gravity with electricity has been a challenge for many great physicists of the last century. Einstein dedicated almost 35 years to the problem without success, while, in 1968, Dirac suggested that it would not be possible to unify the fundamental forces.
Was Dirac right? Isn't a unified force in nature? We know many Physical Scientists had been working hard to find a unified field theory. Also, they predicated many interesting theories. In this field hardest efforts had belonged to String Theory.
I had believed any effort for finding a unified theory without considering conversion of the force and energy does not have any considerable success. In fact there is a unified force/particle in nature. In other words, Force, Energy and Mass had formed a unified fundamental particle that calls CPH in Theory of CPH. In Theory of CPH, Force and Energy are convertible. Also according to Relativity, mass and energy are equivalent. So, Force, Energy and Mass are three manifests of a unified entity that is called CPH. And we should change our perception about force, energy and mass.
Definition of CPH
Suppose there is a particle with mass of m that is moving with speed Vc in an inertial frame. And Vc>c and c is the speed of light. So, its linear momentum gives mVc. (Figure 1). It is Called CPH (Creation Particle Higgs).
Figure 1
Principle of CPH
CPH is a particle with constant mass m and moves with constant speed Vc.
CPH has the momentum of Inertia I. In any interaction between CPH and other particles/forces, the amount of Vc does not change, so;
gradVc=0 in all inertial frames and any space
Explain
According to figure 1, a CPH carries linear momentum of P=mVc. So, CPH has inertia and also has Momentum Inertia I. When an external force is applied on a CPH, then a part of its Linear momentum (P=mVc) converts to angular momentum and CPH takes Spin, so that the amount speed of CPH does not change in any case. When CPH has Spin, it is called GRAVITON. (Figure 2)
Figure 2
When a graviton works on an object/particle, graviton does disappear and converts to energy. Because it is not acceptable that force acts and produces energy; and force does not have any effect on itself while producing energy. All efforts for finding a unified field theory had no success, because physicists do not consider the conversion of force and energy. Also, a graviton acts on another graviton and produces energy. See Figure 3.
Figure 3
The picture above shows two gravitons with the mass of m, speed of Vc and linear momentum of P=mVc, in distance of r feel each other. They absorb each other and “r” decreases. But CPH must move with the speed of Vc, so it loses a part of its linear speed and takes Spin.
A Photon is formed by a lot of CPH that they have spin and photon has spin too. So, when a photon is traveling with speed of c, CPH has linear speed of c and it has spin itself, and a speed equal to the speed of the photon (according to the structure of photon).
In a gravitational field, when a photon shifts to blue, gravitons convert to energy. And when the photon shifts to red, energy converts to graviton. And when energy decays, it produces Matter and Anti-Matter. See Figure 4. In fact ever thing formed of CPH.
Figure 4
CPH Theory propounded that force and energy is equivalent, so CPH theory may provide the answer. From one principle - that CPH moves with constant amount of speed Vc and gradVc=0 in all inertial frames in any space - CPH theory provides a single explanatory framework capable of encompassing all forces and all matter and anti-matter.
CPH theory proclaims, for instance, all observed particles/objects consist of CPH. They can come in forms of masses, energies, fundamental particles and fundamental forces. The strong and weak nuclear forces, electromagnetism, and gravity -- are reflections of various ways in which a CPH can move in the same structure of matter or photon. Just as photons or gravitons in empty space, light or gravity effects reach the earth from a very far star.
CPH is pure gravity force. CPH moves with speed of Vc in an inertial frame if no external force is applied on it. When an external force is applied on a CPH, it takes spin and is called graviton. So, Vc equals the speed of graviton (in an inertial frame), when it has no spin.
In fact a CPH is a sub-quanta of existence in nature. CPH has mass that is a manifest of matter; its movement is a manifest of energy. CPH has sub-quanta bounding gravity field around itself.
A CPH feels another CPH by this sub-quanta gravity field. Also, two CPH absorb each other by their sub-quanta fields. See Figure 5.
Photons (and all subatomic particles) are formed by many CPH that they have spin; and photon has spin too. So, when a photon is traveling with speed of c, CPH has a linear speed of c and it has itself spin and a speed equal to the speed of the photon (in the structure of photon or other subatomic particles).
Figure 5
So, quantum energy is formed by a lot of CPH. Also, CPH (gravitons) work on CPH and produces energy. In the other words, force and energy are equivalent. Force converts to energy and energy changes to force. Fore example; force converts to energy in blue-shift and energy converts to force in red-shift.
Two objects/particles (like the moon and the earth, or an electron and a proton in an atom) transfer CPH continuously.
Photo Electric and Compton Effect by CPH
According to CPH theory a photon contains n number of CPH that they are moving with the speed of c in the structure of photons. The given mass of a CPH is m, so its momentum is P=mc and the momentum of photon is P=nmc, see Figure 6.
Figure 6
When a photon collides to an electron, a number of CPH that exist in the photon enter the electron. See Figure 7.
Figure 7
In photoelectric effect all CPHs of photon enter the structure of the Electron. Consider that it will happen if the amount of the energy of the photon is sufficient.
In Compton Effect some CPH enter the structure of the photon and other CPHs do not enter.
In the picture above, k>k1 and k2=k-k1 when CPH is joined with the electron.
Spring;
Take a look at spring. There is a spring with one of its sides connected to the wall (Figure 8). In formal physics it is defined by the conversion of potential energy and kinetic energy. Let us explain it according to the conversion of force and energy.
Figure 8
A. The spring is pushed by hand. During the time that hands were pushing the spring, hand's energy converts to force. In fact a lot of CPHs leaves the hand and enters the spring. The momentum of these CPH is transferred to the spring. Hands had lost momentum (and energy), and spring gained momentum and energy. It is such as the following:
example; a wagon has a lot of sand that collides to an empty wagon. Some sands leave the first wagon and enter the empty wagon.
In situation A, F= - kx and its direction is toward the left side and energy equals zero: E=0.
B. Force is converting to energy. Spring will return to its equilibrium situation. Object opposes with the spring's movement. The force of the spring converts to energy and the amount of force decreases and energy increases.
C. No force is applied on an object, but energy is maximum: the Object is moving toward the left side and its energy converts to force.
Gravity
According TO CPH Theory, gravity is a currency among objects. For example consider the interaction between the earth and the moon:
Earth has a gravitational field. The gravitational field is formed by gravitons that are moving toward the earth and they are interacting with each other. Suppose the earth is alone and there are no interactions between earth and other bodies in universe. When gravitons reach the earth, the earth absorbs them. Then gravitons obey all forces around them. But the earth is not alone and it has interaction with other bodies. Take a look at earth and moon. There are two fields; one is around the earth and the other one is around the moon. When a graviton reaches the earth, the other one moves toward the moon and pushes the earth toward the moon. (Remember flow and ebb). Also when a graviton reaches the moon, the other one moves toward the earth and pushes the moon toward the earth. So earth (In fact every thing) is bombarded by gravitons continuously.
Figure 9
If movements in the space are without any gravitational effects, they move linearly with the speed of c (top of Figure 9). But space is full of gravity. So, photons’ paths are like the right side of Figure 9.
Left side of Figure 9 shows that a photon is moving in a gravitational field of a massive body.
In point A, the photon has the speed of c, frequency of f and energy of E that reaches point A. Gravitational field acts on the photon, some gravitons enter the structure of the photon. Photons accelerate toward the massive body. Its frequency, energy and speed increase.
In point B, the photon has a frequency of f1, energy of E1 and speed of c1. During the time that photons are falling, the distance between the photon and body decreases, until it reaches the point G. In point G Frequency, speed and energy are maximum for that photon. When photon reaches point F', it is the same as point F, and so on. In point A' it is the same as point A.
The behavior of photons and gravitational fields is the same as spring and objects. On the left side of Figure 9, when a photon is falling, it shifts to blue and the gravity force converts into energy.
When photon is escaping from a massive body it shifts to red and energy converts to gravity force.
Theory of CPH – the ultimate explanation of the universe at its most microscopic level, a theory that does not rely on any deeper explanation - would provide the firmest foundation on which to build our understanding of the world.
CPH bends space
We know the frequency of photon does change in gravitational field. When gravity force acts on a photon, the energy of the photon increases and its frequency increases too (or decreases). In red-shift work is negative (frequency decreases) and in blue-shift work is positive (frequency increases). When photon is leaving gravitational field, it shifts to red and when photon is falling it shifts to blue. When light is moving in space that there is no gravitational effect, the path of light is linear (figure 10).
Now suppose light is moving in gravitational field of a massive body. Gravity works on it. When distance between photon and massive body goes to short, light shifts to blue like photon is falling. But when distance between photon and massive body goes to long, light shifts to red like photon escapes (Figure 10).
Figure 10
What the inside observer observes is the opposite of what the outside observer observes.
Zero Point Energy
Quantum energy is formed by a lot of CPH. Also, CPH (graviton) works on CPH and produces energy.
It happens when the density of the graviton is high. (Figure 11).
According to the size of a gamma photon and the number of CPH in it, we can calculate the density of CPH in the structure of the photon. The diameter of an electron is less than 10^ -18 m. A gamma photon (in pair production) produces an electron and a positron. Suppose the volume of a photon is 2 times bigger than the electron’s volume.
Figure 11
Suppose that the density of CPH in structure of photon is De(cph)=n per m^3,
Space is full of gravitons. Gravitons have interaction among each other. They absorb each other and convert to electromagnetic wave. When they convert to energy, that density of CPH reaches to
De(cph)=n per m^3.
So, for space we have;
Integral on volume of De(cph)=0 to De(cph)=n per m^3 on dDe(cph) = E , E is electromagnetic energy.
Integration of gravitons is a projection to production electromagnetic energy.
In the other word, force and energy are equivalent. Force converts to energy and energy changes to force.
For more see Theory of CPH and Mathematical Modeh of CPH
Any fresh opinion most welcome
Sincerely
Hossein Javadi